BSc (Hons) Pharmacology

Key information

Typical offer:
Entry requirements
Fees: See below
Full details
UCAS code: B210
Institute code: H36
Study abroad option
Work placement option
Find out more

Clearing entry requirements

We’re committed to welcoming students with a wide range of qualifications and levels of experience. Over Clearing, we’ll be taking a flexible approach so if you don’t have the advertised grades, you can submit a clearing application and we’ll review and consider your application on an individual basis.

UCAS points	A Level	BTEC	Accepted T Levels	Access Course Tariff	IB Requirement
120-128	BBB–ABB Required subjects: At least two science A Levels in Chemistry (B); or Biology (B); and another science-based subject (B).	DDM Required subject: BTEC Extended Diploma in Applied Science (depending on optional units studied).	Healthcare Science (merit profile); Health (merit profile); Science (merit profile).	Access to Science Diploma with 45 Level credits at merit profile.	120–128 points from a minimum of two HL subjects at H4 or above to include Biology or Chemistry and one other Science (with the remaining points to come from a combination of HL, SL and Core).

Additional requirements

BTEC* We have additional restrictions on some of the BTEC units accepted, four of six optional units taken must be biology or chemistry titled at merit or above. Please email askbio@herts.ac.uk for specific enquiries.

DD: BTEC Diploma with a minimum DM profile on the pathways described above. Both optional units taken must be biology or chemistry focussed. You must have an additional Level 3 qualification.
D: BTEC Extended Certificate with a minimum D profile on the pathways described above. You must have two additional Level 3 qualifications, one of which must be Biology or Chemistry based.

GCSE: Grade 4/C in English Language, 4/C in Mathematics and 4/C in Double Science or two Single Science grades at 4/C.

All students from non-majority English speaking countries require proof of English language proficiency, equivalent to an overall IELTS score of 6.0 with a minimum of 5.5 in each band.

If you do not have the required IELTS or equivalent for direct entry on to your degree programme, our Pre-sessional English and International Foundation courses can help you to achieve this level.

For more details on the University of Hertfordshire's entry requirements, please visit our Undergraduate Entry Requirements page.

Find out more about International Entry Requirements.

Professional accreditations

All Biosciences graduates in Pharmacology are eligible for graduate membership of the Royal Society of Biology.

This programme has been accredited by the Royal Society of Biology. Advanced Degree Accreditation by the Society recognises academic excellence in the biosciences, and highlights degrees that educate the research and development leaders and innovators of the future. The Advanced Accreditation criteria require evidence that graduates from the programme meet defined sets of learning outcomes, including gaining a substantial period of research experience.

UCAS points	A Level	BTEC	Accepted T Levels	Access Course Tariff	IB Requirement
120–128	BBB–ABB Required subjects: At least two science A Levels in Chemistry (B); or Biology (B); and another science-based subject (B).	DDM Required subject: BTEC Extended Diploma in Applied Science (depending on optional units studied).	120–128 UCAS points Please see additional requirements for accepted T Level subjects.	Access to Science Diploma with 45 Level credits at merit profile.	120–128 points from a minimum of two HL subjects at H4 or above to include Biology or Chemistry and one other Science (with the remaining points to come from a combination of HL, SL and Core).

Why choose this course?

100% satisfaction for Academic Support, 2024 NSS (based on the average of Q15-16)
Learn practical laboratory skills in our modern Science Building
Take a placement year with pharmaceutical companies like GSK

You have an interest in how medicines work. You want to learn about their actions in living systems. As the demand for new drugs continues, the need for specialists to discover and test them grows. Join our team of aspiring pharmacologists to learn how drugs are made, developed, and marketed. We’ll introduce you into the world of medicine in an engaging and practical way. Explore the methods used to test the effectiveness and safety of new medicines. Get hands on experience in our modern Science Building with great teaching and research laboratories. You’ll be able to use well equipped laboratories spread over five storeys of innovative facilities. You will work alongside researchers, academics, industry specialists and other students.

Our flexible programme introduces you to a range of Biomedical Science topics in your first year before you begin to specialise in Pharmacology for your remaining studies. If your interests change in the first year, then it’s easy to swap to another Biomedical pathway. That’s why we give you the chance to experience a range of modules before committing to the Pharmacology pathway. We believe in flexibility. We will guide you to find your passion to study what you really love.

While you explore various new and exciting areas in this degree, we will be with you all the way. You’ll get a personal tutor, who’ll support you in gaining subject-specific skills in scientific writing, data interpretation, and communication. Take advantage of peer support too in group workshops. Share your breakthroughs and discuss patient case studies. This programme is the stepping-stone into a wide range of scientific careers in the Health-care Industry. We also have students graduating to take up places at Medical School and on Masters and PhD programmes at top British universities. We are proud of our professional and aspiring pharmacologists, and we are very proud of our degree. You’ll also gain plenty of transferable skills to enter broader fields like teaching or business if you prefer.

We are very proud of our professional and aspiring pharmacologists and of our course. So, if you are interested in a degree programme in which you will be learning current developments in pharmacology from experts in the field, on a course with good links to the pharmaceutical sector, then this is the course for you. Please get in touch with our Admissions team. We would like to hear from you.

Graduate Stories:

Read Principal Advisor (GlaxoSmithKline) Fareha Nagi's graduate story

Find out more about our teaching staff across the Biosciences

Get in touch

What's the course about?

Pharmacology covers all aspects of drugs and their uses as medicines. You’ll learn how new drugs are discovered and tested. You’ll understand why they are effective in treating disease. You’ll explore how they work at a whole body, tissue, and receptor protein level. Governments and companies spend billions of pounds on pharmacological research. The demand for well-trained pharmacology graduates is fierce. We’ll teach you what you need to know to be a highly sought-after employee in the industry.

Your first year is about building a solid foundation in bioscience. You’ll study alongside students from other disciplines. You’ll obtain an initial grounding in chemistry, molecular biology and genetics, microbiology, and human physiology with pharmacology. You’ll learn how to describe physiological processes in the body. This will be at cell, tissue, organ and organism level. Your theory will be backed up with extensive practical work to develop key laboratory skills.

In your second year, you start specialising. You’ll start to look at the stages of drug development. You’ll learn the need for clinical trials. Explore the controversial issues around trialling human volunteers. You’ll uncover how medication keeps us in good health and how they save lives. You’ll learn how pain relief drugs like ibuprofen and aspirin work in the body. Understand the process of chemotherapy for cancers. You’ll hear amazing success stories as well as the limitations of existing therapies.

Work placement/study abroad option: Between your second and final year, you’ll have the option to study abroad or do a work placement for up to a year. Not only will this give you an amazing experience to talk about but will also give your CV a boost. If you’d rather go straight to your final year, that’s absolutely fine too.

In your final year you’ll find that you have grown to love certain topics that you just need to delve deeper into. You’ll learn how to find new targets for drug development. How could you treat Alzheimer’s Disease? What role do our genes play in determining safe dosages of medicines for each of us? Then, you can select from all modules to focus your project on. You could look at important disorders such as diabetes and Parkinson’s Disease. Or maybe you could look at the toxicity of Novel Psychoactive Substances. It’s totally up to you. Just know, from hypothesis to conclusion, we are with you all the way.

You have 20 hours of contact time, with lectures and workshops taking up about 6-10 hours per week, while the remaining time is devoted to practical work. Throughout your degree, you will be assessed in a variety of ways. This will include exams, literature reviews, portfolios, lab reports, practical's and presentations. Coursework assessments are generally 50-100% per module.

Your main campus is College Lane

This is where the creative arts, science and health-related subjects are based. This means you’ll share the campus with future nurses, scientists, artists and more. You can use the common rooms to relax with friends, work out in the 24-hour gym or have a drink in our on-campus pub or cafes. We also have restaurants for you to eat in or grab something on the go. Our Learning Resources Centres are open 24/7, which means you can study whenever suits you best. Want to pop over to the other campus? You can take the free shuttle bus or walk there in just 15 minutes.   

Take a virtual tour

What will I study?

Degree programmes are structured into levels, 4, 5 and 6. These correspond to your first, second and third/final year of study.  Below you can see what modules you’ll be studying in each.  

Level 4

Module	Credits	Compulsory/optional
Molecular Biology and Genetics	15 Credits	Compulsory
The genetics component covers: Mendelian inheritance including meiosis and the production of primordial germ cells and gametes (oogenesis, spermatogenesis); linkage and basic human genetic epidemiology. The relationship of mutation to genetic variation and disease is included as well as an introduction to gene regulation. Molecular methods used to study DNA and inheritance are covered and the application of these methods to research, diagnosis and treatment of disease is discussed.
Core Biochemistry	15 Credits	Compulsory
The module introduces biochemistry incorporating aspects of chemistry specific to the study of biological systems. Subjects include: the structure of key macromolecules and relationship to their function in cells and organisms; the major metabolic pathways of glycolysis, the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation and how they integrate together; other selected pathways around carbohydrate and fat metabolism Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetics including calculation of key enzyme parameters; radioactivity including applications in biochemical studies, thermodynamics and application to bioenergetics.
Cell and Microbiology	15 Credits	Compulsory
The key topics covered include: How genetic information in cells is converted into functioning components; the structure and nature of cells (prokaryotes and eukaryotes) with an emphasis on cell components and functions; the structure and components of bacteria and viruses with relation to their identification and disease causing ability; the basic principles of microbial growth and infection; transmission and control to include basic principles of public health and epidemiology; an introduction into fungi and their benefits and harm.
Human Physiology with Pharmacology	30 Credits	Compulsory
This module has been designed to provide students with an understanding of human physiology, enabling them to describe physiological processes at cell, tissue, organ and organism levels. Topics include: Homeostasis and control mechanisms; Cell differentiation, basic tissues and musculature; Nervous system (electrical signalling, autonomic and central nervous system); Blood; Cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, renal, endocrine, and immune systems; Reproduction; Integrative physiology; Basic pharmacology (receptor theory and pharmacokinetics; how medicines may be effectively used to treat disease); Drug discovery, design and development; The importance of clinical trials.
Chemistry for the Biological Sciences	15 Credits	Optional
This module prepares students for their future studies in the biological sciences. The module introduces the chemical and physical principles that underlie biological processes. Students on this module will learn techniques for characterisation and separation of biological molecules, perform physicochemical calculations appropriate to biological systems and understand how the structure and reactivity of functional groups relates to their biological function. Students will gain experience of computer software packages to draw and understand the structures and shapes of molecules of relevance in biology.
Practical and Transferable Skills	30 Credits	Compulsory
The content of this module is designed to introduce and develop practical laboratory skills, safe laboratory practice, accurate pipetting, making up solutions, sample preparation, staining and microscopy, DNA isolation and analysis, cell counting methodologies, chemistry methodologies and analytical techniques, use of standard curves in biological measurement, microbiology skills, enzyme activity assays and measurement of physiological parameters. Mathematics required for biological calculations, statistical analysis, scientific recording, data presentation, scientific writing, use of literature and literature searching, referencing, avoiding plagiarism and bioinformatics.
Molecular Structure and Reactivity	15 Credits	Optional
Organic, structural and physical chemistry appropriate for the biochemical and pharmaceutical sciences are covered, including: atomic theory and bonding, a study of the key organic functional groups, introductory kinetics and thermodynamics in the biomolecular and pharmaceutical sciences, introduction to chemistry associated with basic pharmaceutics. This module covers introductory chemical kinetics and thermodynamics, the structural basis of organic chemistry and the relationship of physical properties to chemical structure and organisation, the properties of solutions, buffers, electrolytes and associated properties (pH, pKa, LogP) and spectroscopy in biology.
Bioinformatics	15 Credits	Optional
Topics will include: an introduction to bioinformatics, bioinformatics databases and their uses; application of pairwise and multiple sequence alignment of DNA and proteins; protein structure and function; the application of artificial intelligence and 'Big Data' in Biomedicine; an introduction to the Linux operating system, and basic coding through the use of scripting (e.g. Python).

Level 5

Module	Credits	Compulsory/optional
Principles of Immunology	15 Credits	Compulsory
Anatomy and physiology of the immune system, natural immunity and hypersensitivity reactions. Adaptive immunity and the role of the major histocompatibility complex. Immunity to microbial pathogens. Vaccine design strategies. Inflammation: immunology of chronic inflammation; immunopathology of selected chronic inflammatory diseases. Anti-inflammatory therapies; steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Biology of Disease	15 Credits	Compulsory
This module focuses on prominent 21st-century non-communicable diseases in Western populations. It covers cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, cancer, diabetes, and degenerative disorders. Students will delve into disease pathophysiology at tissue, cellular, and systems levels, exploring the interplay of genetics and environment in disease incidence. Contemporary diseases impacting physiological, cellular, and biochemical systems, along with internal and external factors, will be highlighted through selected examples.
Biochemistry for Pharmacology	15 Credits	Compulsory
The module will build on Core Biochemistry studied at level 4. Further metabolic pathways related to carbohydrates and lipids, nitrogen metabolism, protein degradation, and their integration will be considered. Metabolic diseases as well as vitamins and cofactors in metabolism will be addressed. Enzyme regulation and inhibition including the methods involved in their study, the determination of Ki values, and their importance in the treatment of disease will be considered.
Bioscience Research Methods	15 Credits	Compulsory
Understand how problems in science are researched in the scientific literature; investigated in the laboratory through the construction of hypotheses, the design of experiments and the analysis of data; and the importance of subsequent communication of the results in scientific papers. Practice of these skills will be through the completion of a Mini Project. Cultivate personal transferable skills relating to employability and future professional development (including interview practice, group work and skills development session).
Bioscience Work Experience	15 Credits	Optional
This module provides opportunities to develop employability skills and to reflect on work completed outside study time. Suitable work experience includes any paid or voluntary work over a minimum of 50 hours conducted under supervision. Students will compile a portfolio, which will include evidence and a reflection of the work undertaken, and other items related to career development, such as attendance of a mock Assessment Centre Experience or a mock interview as well as a CV.
Pharmacology	30 Credits	Compulsory
The focus of this module is to help students understand the mechanisms underpinning drug action at receptors and other important drug targets and how these interactions govern the use of drugs in treating disease. The module will explore the use of drugs in treating important diseases affecting the cardiovascular system, autonomic and central nervous system, and the gastrointestinal system. We will also study the chemotherapeutics of cancers and infectious diseases as well as the physiological process and pharmacological treatment of pain.
Genes and Genomes	15 Credits	Compulsory
Chromosome structure, gene organisation and regulation of expression including basic intercellular signalling, epigenetics, transcription factors, differential mRNA processing and microRNAs. Gene and gene family evolution. Repetitive DNA sequences. The elucidation of the organisation of eukaryotic genomes from DNA reassociation kinetics to the human genome sequence. Whole genome analyses and comparative genomics. Recombinant DNA technology and the manipulation of DNA. Introduction to databases and bioinformatics. Cytogenetics. Principles of population genetics, DNA polymorphism and human diseases. An introduction to personalised medicine and molecular diagnostics.
Cell and Molecular Biology	15 Credits	Compulsory
This module will provide an understanding of: relationship between protein structure and function; alteration in protein structure and disease; techniques for protein purification and characterisation, including electrophoresis, liquid column chromatography, mass spectrometry; proteomics techniques; signal transduction pathways in eukaryotic cells, including pathways involving ligand-activated and cell death pathways; notions of mitochondrial physiology, including mitochondrial dynamics and signalling functions; functional units of the cellular cytoskeleton and their dynamic organisation; cell polarity; regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, motility and viability; regulation of cell division and cell cycle.

Level 6

Module	Credits	Compulsory/optional
Project	30 Credits	Compulsory
The Project provides the opportunity for extended, in-depth study on a selected aspect from those disciplines within the Bioscience Programme and may address one or more of the School's research objectives. Projects may be laboratory or non-laboratory based and the experimental work will be of 22 days duration but all students are encouraged to work on their project preparation from the beginning of their final year. Supervisors will discuss aims, objectives current theories, research design, data collection and analysis, and the report structure.
Neurobiology and Disease	30 Credits	Compulsory
Neurophysiology uses a powerful armoury of experimental methods to reveal the brain mechanisms involved in a range of functions including movement, motivation and emotion, learning and memory and sensory perception. The module then builds upon this understanding of mechanisms to investigate how dysfunction leads to a number of common neurological disorders such as the neurodegenerative conditions of Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease and Motor Neuron Diseases.
Therapeutic Pharmacology	30 Credits	Compulsory
This module focuses on the molecular and biochemical aspects of disease and how drug therapies modulate this pathology. Current advances in understanding of the basis of selected diseases will be studied in relation to existing drugs and emerging therapies. The rationale for novel approaches which may lead to the development of new chemical and biological entities will be explored.
Translation of Science into Medicine	30 Credits	Compulsory
The module focuses on how basic and clinical research impact each other in pharmaceutical development i.e. 'bench to bedside'. The module explores how basic research methods of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, drug efficacy, drug metabolism and preclinical safety translate drugs into clinical development. Clinical trial design, safety testing and pharmacogenomics will be related to the testing of medicines in human clinical trials and pharmacovigilance. Ethical questions arising from preclinical and clinical trials design will be addressed. The influence of regulatory requirements on the pharmaceutical industry will also be highlighted. Students will apply problem-based learning approaches to interpret data from clinical studies in case studies of drug development. Students will also gain an appreciation of the factors leading to the withdrawal of a drug from the market. Role play scenarios will be provided relevant to drug discovery and development where students will engage in group work.

Study abroad

An opportunity for an amazing experience, which will help make you stand out from the crowd. With more and more companies working internationally, experience of living in another country can make a great impression on future employers.

This course offers you the opportunity to enhance your study and CV with a sandwich year abroad. The University has partnerships with over 150 universities around the world, including the USA, Canada, Asia, Africa, Australia, South America and closer to home in Europe.

If you study abroad between your second and third year of study, you’ll pay no tuition fee to the partner university and no tuition fee to us either. We’ll ask you to make your decision in your second year, so there is plenty of time to think about it.

Find out more about Study abroad opportunities

Please note Erasmus+ funding is only available until May 2023. For students starting their course in September 2022 and wishing to study abroad in 2023-24 or 2024-25, please refer to the Turing Scheme.
Work placement
Graduate with invaluable work experience alongside your degree and stand out from the crowd.

This course offers you the opportunity to enhance your study and CV with a work placement sandwich year. It’s a chance to explore career possibilities, make valuable contacts and gain sought after professional skills.

Our dedicated Careers and Employment team are here to help guide you through the process. Current employers and job titles are listed below:
- GlaxoSmithKline: Data Management - Uxbridge
- Guy's Hospital: Drug Research Unit - London
- Imperial College: Toxicology Unit, Faculty of Medicine - London
- Medical Research Council - Mill Hill
- Medifix Adhesive Products - Luton
- Mount Vernon hospital: Restoration of Appearance and Function Trust Institute of Reconstructive, Plastic and Burns Surgery Research - Middlesex
- MRC: Human Genome Project - Hinxton
- National Biological Standards Board - Potter's Bar
- Roche UK - Welwyn Garden City
- St. Bartholomew's & The Royal London: School of Medicine - London and St.George Medical School - London
- St.George's Hospital: Analytical Unit - London
- Syngenta Seeds - Cambridge
- University of Hertfordshire: Biodeterioration Centre - Hatfield.
If you take up a work placement between your second and third year of study, at the University of Hertfordshire you’ll pay no tuition fee for this year. We’ll ask you to make your decision in your second year, so there is plenty of time to think about it.

Find out more about work placements
What if I need support?

You’ll get a personal tutor to guide you through your course, all the way to graduation.
You might also want or need extra support during your time with us. Rest assured, no matter what you study, we’ve got you covered. For help with study skills, including referencing, essay writing and presentations, you’ll have access to our academic support services. You can attend workshops, 1-to-1 sessions, and online tutorials. Both our LRCs (Learning Resources Centres) run drop-in study skills sessions. And the best thing is, it’s all free.

What's next for my career?
Our biosciences graduates are highly sought after by employers in the industry due to the reputation of our teaching, the vocational element to our degrees and the fact that many of our students already have a year's work experience when they graduate which they gain in the sandwich year. Graduates can find employment in the pharmaceutical, food and drink, agrochemical and biotechnology industries as well as in industrial, academic and charity funded research. Some graduates also go on to work in health care and environment agencies. First salaries range from £12,000 to £22,000 pa.

Typical job titles of recent graduates:
- Trainee Biomedical Scientist
- Clinical Trials Associate
- Drug Safety Coordinator
- Medical Representative
- Lab Scientist
- Microbiologist
- Research Assistant
- Tissue Culture Technologist
- Donor Transplant Assistant.
Typical employers of recent graduates:
- Pfizer
- Denfleet Pharma Ltd
- Health Protection Agency
- GlaxoSmithKline
- AstraZeneca
- NHS Trusts
- Lark Technology.
Our graduates can find employment in the pharmaceutical or clinical industries as well as in industrial, academic and charity-funded research. Some graduates go on to work in pharmaceutical sales, drug regulation, scientific communication or education.
Key staff

Christopher Keating
Team leader, Pharmacology

Course fact sheets
BSc (Hons) Bioscience (Pharmacology) (Revised 2024)	Download

Programme specifications
BSc (Hons) Bioscience (Pharmacology) (Revised 2024)	Download

Additional information
Sandwich placement or study abroad year	Optional
Applications open to international and EU students	Yes
Course length	Full Time, 3 Years Part Time, 6 Years Sandwich, 4 Years
Location	University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield

International/EU applicants without pre-settled status in the UK

Apply through our international/EU application portal

Home and EU applicants with pre-settled/settled status in the UK

Apply using the links below:

2024

Start Date	End Date	Year	Location	Link
23/09/2024	30/09/2025	1	UH Hatfield Campus	Apply online (Part Time)
23/09/2024	30/09/2025	1	UH Hatfield Campus	Apply online (Full Time/Sandwich)

2025

Start Date	End Date	Year	Location	Link
23/09/2025	30/09/2026	1	UH Hatfield Campus	Apply online (Part Time)
23/09/2025	30/09/2026	1	UH Hatfield Campus	Apply online (Full Time/Sandwich)
22/09/2025	31/05/2026	2	UH Hatfield Campus	Apply online (Full Time/Sandwich)

2026

Start Date	End Date	Year	Location	Link
21/09/2026	31/05/2027	3	UH Hatfield Campus	Apply online (Full Time)

Fees and funding
Fees 2024
UK Students
Full time
- £9250 for the 2024/2025 academic year
Part time
- £1155 per 15 credits for the 2024/2025 academic year
EU Students
Full time
- £15500 for the 2024/2025 academic year
Part time
- £1940 per 15 credits for the 2024/2025 academic year
International Students
Full time
- £15500 for the 2024/2025 academic year
Part time
- £1940 per 15 credits for the 2024/2025 academic year
Fees 2025
UK Students
Full time
- £9250 for the 2025/2026 academic year
Part time
- £1155 per 15 credits for the 2025/2026 academic year
EU Students
Full time
- £15965 for the 2025/2026 academic year
Part time
- £1995 per 15 credits for the 2025/2026 academic year
International Students
Full time
- £15965 for the 2025/2026 academic year
Part time
- £1995 per 15 credits for the 2025/2026 academic year
There are no compulsory additional expenses for this course. Where you will use an EVS handset, Lab coats and log books. These will be provided as part of your course fees.

*Tuition fees are charged annually. The fees quoted above are for the specified year(s) only. Fees may be higher in future years, for both new and continuing students. Please see the University’s Fees and Finance Policy (and in particular the section headed “When tuition fees change”), for further information about when and by how much the University may increase its fees for future years.

View detailed information about tuition fees

Read more about additional fees in the course fact sheet

Other financial support

Find out more about other financial support available to UK and EU students

Living costs / accommodation

The University of Hertfordshire offers a great choice of student accommodation, on campus or nearby in the local area, to suit every student budget.

View detailed information about our accommodation

Apply through Clearing

Book your open day

Get info and updates

BSc (Hons) Pharmacology

Key information

Typical offer:

Fees: See below

UCAS code: B210

Institute code: H36

Study abroad option

Work placement option

Clearing entry requirements

Additional requirements

Additional requirements

Why choose this course?

Get in touch

What's the course about?

Your main campus is College Lane

What will I study?

International/EU applicants without pre-settled status in the UK

Home and EU applicants with pre-settled/settled status in the UK

Apply through Clearing now

2024

2025

2026

Fees 2024

UK Students

Full time

Part time

EU Students

Full time

Part time

International Students

Full time

Part time

Fees 2025

UK Students

Full time

Part time

EU Students

Full time

Part time

International Students

Full time

Part time

Other financial support

Living costs / accommodation